Ya hemos enfatizado, en este blog de afilado criterio, los graves problemas en la moda decerebrada de la detección de "selección positiva". Una de las críticas que suelo hacer ante mis colegas y en otros blogs donde dejo comenatrios es la facilidad con que se contentan con asumir cambios "ventajosos" sin hacer ninguna conección con el fenotipo, basados sólo en el test estadístico.
¿Qué pasa cuando controlamos adecuadamente si hay fenotipo asociado a las sustituciones nucleotídicas "positivamente seleccionadas"?
Un comentario recientemente publicado en PNAS menciona un interesante estudio reciente de rhodopsinas que absorben diferentes longitudes de onda en muchas diferentes especies de peces que viven a diferentes profundidades o tienen diferentes conductas relacionadas con la luz. Se caracterizan muchos cambios no sinónimos que afectan la longitud de onda que absorben las rhodopsinas y que se corresponden con ele stilo de vida de cada especie de pez (es decir son "adaptativas"; véase este post previo sobre este tema ). Resulta una instancia idónea para poner a prueba de manera biológica la famosa "prueba estadística" de la selección positiva. Nos dice Austin Hughes:
"In fact, the results showed that the codon-based methods were 100% off-target. When Bayesian methods were applied to a set of closely related rhodopsin sequences, eight sites were identified as ‘‘positively selected.’’ Yet not one of these sites was among the 12 sites known to be involved in adaptive changes in rhodopsin sensitivity. Moreover, amino acid changes at these sites were shown experimentally to have no effect and thus almost certainly to lack any adaptive significance.These results support the theoretical prediction that, because of the faulty logic in their underlying assumptions, codon-based focus mainly on statistical artifacts rather than true cases of positive selection"
Hughes concluye:
"In recent years the literature of evolutionary biology has been glutted with extravagant claims of positive selection on the basis of computational analyses alone, including both codon-based methods and other questionable methods such as the McDonald-Kreitman test. This vast outpouring of pseudo-Darwinian hype has been genuinely harmful to the credibilit y of evolutionary biology as a science. It is to be hoped that the work of Yokoyama et al. will help put an end to these distressing tendencies."
Ya era hora!!
El comentario de Hughes está en el grupo yahoo decenio (PNAS 2008Hughes). Tienen que leerselo...acá sólo puse una fracción de sus demoledoras críticas.
Refs
Austin L. Hughes. The origin of adaptive phenotypes. PNAS 2008 105:13193-13194
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viernes, noviembre 07, 2008
domingo, julio 27, 2008
Phyloepigenetics IV: Lagartija y nemátodo
Herrel et al 2008. Rapid large-scale evolutionary divergence in morphology and performance associated with exploitation of a different dietary resource. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. Mar 25;105(12):4792-5.
Excerpts!
"In 1971 five adult pairs of this species were moved from the small islet of Pod Kopiste (0.09 km2) to the nearby Pod Mrcaru (0.03 km2) by Nevo and coworkers (...). Although the islet of Pod Mrcaru was originally inhabited by another lacertid lizard species (Podarcis melisellensis), repeated visits (twice yearly over the past three years, beginning in 2004) show that this species has become extinct on Pod Mrcaru. Genetic mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the lizards currently on Pod Mrcaru are indeed P. sicula and are genetically indistinguishable from lizards from the source population"
"Differences in head size and shape also translate into significant dif ferences in bite force bet ween populations. Our data show that P. sicula lizards consume more plant material on Pod Mrcaru compared with the ancestral population on Pod Kopiste"
"This shift to a predominantly plant-based diet has resulted in the dramatic evolution of intestinal morpholog y. Morphological analysis of preserved specimens shows the presence of cecal valves (Fig. 4) in all individuals, including a hatchling (26.4-mm snout-vent length, umbilical scar present) and a very young juvenile (33.11-mm snout-vent length) examined from Pod Mrcaru."
"The fact that 1% of all currently known species of squamates have cecal valves (13, 14) illustrates the unusual nature of these structures in this population"
"Cecal valves slow down food passage and provide for fermenting chambers, allowing commensal microorganisms to convert cellulose to volatile fatt y acids (15, 16). Indeed, in the lizards f rom Pod Mrcaru, nematodes were common in the hindgut but absent from individuals f rom PodKopiste"
"Because of the larger food base available and the increase in the predict abilit y of the food source, lizard densities on Pod Mrcaru are much greater (..) lizards on Pod Mrcaru do no longer appear to defend territories. Moreover, changes in foraging style (browsing versus active pursuit of mobile prey) and social structure may also have resulted in the dramatic changes in limb proportions and maximal sprint speed previously documented for this population"
"Although the presence of cecal valves and large heads in hatchlings and juveniles suggests a genetic basis for these differences, further studies investigating the potential role of phenotypic plasticity and/or maternal effects in the divergence bet ween populations are needed"
Herrell no discute mucho qué tan relevante puede ser la simbiosis con un nemátodo. Veamos un ejemplo de anfibios
Effects of the nematode Gyrinicola batrachiensis on development, gut morphology, and fermentation in bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana): a novel mutualism
Gregory S. Pryor *, Karen A. Bjorndal J. Exp. Zool. 303A:704-712, 2005.
Abstract
We describe a novel mutualism between bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana) and a tadpole-specific gastrointestinal nematode (Gyrinicola batrachiensis). Groups of tadpoles were inoculated with viable or nonviable nematode eggs, and development, morphology, and gut fermentation activity were compared between nematode-infected and uninfected tadpoles. Nematode infection accelerated tadpole development; the mean time to metamorphosis was 16 d shorter and the range of times to metamorphosis was narrower in nematode-infected tadpoles than in uninfected tadpoles. At metamorphosis, infected and uninfected bullfrogs did not differ in body size or condition. Colon width, wet mass of colon contents, and concentrations of most fermentation byproducts (short-chain fatty acids: SCFAs) in the hindgut were greater in infected tadpoles. Furthermore, in vitro fermentation yields for all SCFAs combined were over twice as high in infected tadpoles than in uninfected tadpoles. One explanation for accelerated development in infected tadpoles is the altered hindgut fermentation associated with the nematodes. Energetic contributions of fermentation were estimated to be 20% and 9% of the total daily energy requirement for infected and uninfected tadpoles, respectively. Infection by G. batrachiensis nematodes potentially confers major ecological and evolutionary advantages to R. catesbeiana tadpoles. The mutualism between these species broadens our understanding of the taxonomic diversity and physiological contributions of fermentative gut symbionts and suggests that nematodes inhabiting the gut regions of other ectothermic herbivores might have beneficial effects in those hosts.
Si bien algunos nemátodos son parásitos en reptiles, otros no lo son:
Oecologia. 2006 Dec;150(3):355-61. Epub 2006
O'Grady SP, Dearing MD. Isotopic insight into host-endosymbiont relationships in Liolaemid lizards
Nitrogen isotopes have been widely used to investigate trophic levels in ecological systems. Isotopic enrichment of 2-5 per thousand occurs with trophic level increases in food webs. Host-parasite relationships deviate from traditional food webs in that parasites are minimally enriched relative to their hosts. Although this host-parasite enrichment pattern has been shown in multiple systems, few studies have used isotopic relationships to examine other potential symbioses. We examined the relationship between two gut-nematodes and their lizard hosts. One species, Physaloptera retusa, is a documented parasite in the stomach, whereas the relationship of the other species, Parapharyngodon riojensis (pinworms), to the host is putatively commensalistic or mutualistic. Based on the established trophic enrichments, we predicted that, relative to host tissue, parasitic nematodes would be minimally enriched (0-1 per thousand), whereas pinworms, either as commensals or mutualists, would be significantly enriched by 2-5 per thousand. We measured the (15)N values of food, digesta, gut tissue, and nematodes of eight lizard species in the family Liolaemidae. Parasitic worms were enriched 1+/-0.2 per thousand relative to host tissue, while the average enrichment value for pinworms relative to gut tissue was 6.7+/-0.2 per thousand. The results support previous findings that isotopic fractionation in a host-parasite system is lower than traditional food webs. Additionally, the larger enrichment of pinworms relative to known parasites suggests that they are not parasitic and may be several trophic levels beyond the host.
Correlating diet and digestive tract specialization: Examples from the lizard family Liolaemidae
Shannon P. O’Gradya, Mariana Morandob, Luciano Avilab and M. Denise Dearinga
Zoology 2005, 108 : 201-210
Abstract
A range of digestive tract specializations were compared among dietary categories in the family Liolaemidae to test the hypothesis that herbivores require greater gut complexity to process plant matter. Additionally, the hypothesis that herbivory favors the evolution of larger body size was tested. Lastly, the association between diet and hindgut nematodes was explored. Herbivorous liolaemids were larger relative to omnivorous and insectivorous congeners and consequently had larger guts. In addition, small intestine length of herbivorous liolaemids was disproportionately longer than that of congeners. Significant interaction effects between diet and body size among organ dimensions indicate that increases in organ size occur to a greater extent in herbivores than other diet categories. For species with plant matter in their guts, there was a significant positive correlation between the percentage of plant matter consumed and small intestine length. Herbivorous liolaemids examined in this study lacked the gross morphological specializations (cecum and colonic valves) found in herbivores in the families Iguanidae and Agamidae. A significantly greater percentage of herbivorous species had nematodes in their gut. Of the species with nematodes, over 95% of herbivores had nematodes only in the hindgut. Prevalence of nematodes in the hindgut of herbivores was 2× that of omnivores and 4× that of insectivores.
Los dichosos nemátodos se encuentran en todas las especies de reptil que tienen válvulas cecales
Preguntas:
Todo este cambio, en sólo 34 años.... es acaso una acumulación por selección direccional de varios genes? Grano fino, o grano grueso?
Cuánto de este cambios fenotípico drástico se debe más bien al efecto inmediato de diferentes condiciones epigenéticas, como la mentada asociación con el nemátodo?
Excerpts!
"In 1971 five adult pairs of this species were moved from the small islet of Pod Kopiste (0.09 km2) to the nearby Pod Mrcaru (0.03 km2) by Nevo and coworkers (...). Although the islet of Pod Mrcaru was originally inhabited by another lacertid lizard species (Podarcis melisellensis), repeated visits (twice yearly over the past three years, beginning in 2004) show that this species has become extinct on Pod Mrcaru. Genetic mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the lizards currently on Pod Mrcaru are indeed P. sicula and are genetically indistinguishable from lizards from the source population"
"Differences in head size and shape also translate into significant dif ferences in bite force bet ween populations. Our data show that P. sicula lizards consume more plant material on Pod Mrcaru compared with the ancestral population on Pod Kopiste"
"This shift to a predominantly plant-based diet has resulted in the dramatic evolution of intestinal morpholog y. Morphological analysis of preserved specimens shows the presence of cecal valves (Fig. 4) in all individuals, including a hatchling (26.4-mm snout-vent length, umbilical scar present) and a very young juvenile (33.11-mm snout-vent length) examined from Pod Mrcaru."
"The fact that 1% of all currently known species of squamates have cecal valves (13, 14) illustrates the unusual nature of these structures in this population"
"Cecal valves slow down food passage and provide for fermenting chambers, allowing commensal microorganisms to convert cellulose to volatile fatt y acids (15, 16). Indeed, in the lizards f rom Pod Mrcaru, nematodes were common in the hindgut but absent from individuals f rom PodKopiste"
"Because of the larger food base available and the increase in the predict abilit y of the food source, lizard densities on Pod Mrcaru are much greater (..) lizards on Pod Mrcaru do no longer appear to defend territories. Moreover, changes in foraging style (browsing versus active pursuit of mobile prey) and social structure may also have resulted in the dramatic changes in limb proportions and maximal sprint speed previously documented for this population"
"Although the presence of cecal valves and large heads in hatchlings and juveniles suggests a genetic basis for these differences, further studies investigating the potential role of phenotypic plasticity and/or maternal effects in the divergence bet ween populations are needed"
Herrell no discute mucho qué tan relevante puede ser la simbiosis con un nemátodo. Veamos un ejemplo de anfibios
Effects of the nematode Gyrinicola batrachiensis on development, gut morphology, and fermentation in bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana): a novel mutualism
Gregory S. Pryor *, Karen A. Bjorndal J. Exp. Zool. 303A:704-712, 2005.
Abstract
We describe a novel mutualism between bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana) and a tadpole-specific gastrointestinal nematode (Gyrinicola batrachiensis). Groups of tadpoles were inoculated with viable or nonviable nematode eggs, and development, morphology, and gut fermentation activity were compared between nematode-infected and uninfected tadpoles. Nematode infection accelerated tadpole development; the mean time to metamorphosis was 16 d shorter and the range of times to metamorphosis was narrower in nematode-infected tadpoles than in uninfected tadpoles. At metamorphosis, infected and uninfected bullfrogs did not differ in body size or condition. Colon width, wet mass of colon contents, and concentrations of most fermentation byproducts (short-chain fatty acids: SCFAs) in the hindgut were greater in infected tadpoles. Furthermore, in vitro fermentation yields for all SCFAs combined were over twice as high in infected tadpoles than in uninfected tadpoles. One explanation for accelerated development in infected tadpoles is the altered hindgut fermentation associated with the nematodes. Energetic contributions of fermentation were estimated to be 20% and 9% of the total daily energy requirement for infected and uninfected tadpoles, respectively. Infection by G. batrachiensis nematodes potentially confers major ecological and evolutionary advantages to R. catesbeiana tadpoles. The mutualism between these species broadens our understanding of the taxonomic diversity and physiological contributions of fermentative gut symbionts and suggests that nematodes inhabiting the gut regions of other ectothermic herbivores might have beneficial effects in those hosts.
Si bien algunos nemátodos son parásitos en reptiles, otros no lo son:
Oecologia. 2006 Dec;150(3):355-61. Epub 2006
O'Grady SP, Dearing MD. Isotopic insight into host-endosymbiont relationships in Liolaemid lizards
Nitrogen isotopes have been widely used to investigate trophic levels in ecological systems. Isotopic enrichment of 2-5 per thousand occurs with trophic level increases in food webs. Host-parasite relationships deviate from traditional food webs in that parasites are minimally enriched relative to their hosts. Although this host-parasite enrichment pattern has been shown in multiple systems, few studies have used isotopic relationships to examine other potential symbioses. We examined the relationship between two gut-nematodes and their lizard hosts. One species, Physaloptera retusa, is a documented parasite in the stomach, whereas the relationship of the other species, Parapharyngodon riojensis (pinworms), to the host is putatively commensalistic or mutualistic. Based on the established trophic enrichments, we predicted that, relative to host tissue, parasitic nematodes would be minimally enriched (0-1 per thousand), whereas pinworms, either as commensals or mutualists, would be significantly enriched by 2-5 per thousand. We measured the (15)N values of food, digesta, gut tissue, and nematodes of eight lizard species in the family Liolaemidae. Parasitic worms were enriched 1+/-0.2 per thousand relative to host tissue, while the average enrichment value for pinworms relative to gut tissue was 6.7+/-0.2 per thousand. The results support previous findings that isotopic fractionation in a host-parasite system is lower than traditional food webs. Additionally, the larger enrichment of pinworms relative to known parasites suggests that they are not parasitic and may be several trophic levels beyond the host.
Correlating diet and digestive tract specialization: Examples from the lizard family Liolaemidae
Shannon P. O’Gradya, Mariana Morandob, Luciano Avilab and M. Denise Dearinga
Zoology 2005, 108 : 201-210
Abstract
A range of digestive tract specializations were compared among dietary categories in the family Liolaemidae to test the hypothesis that herbivores require greater gut complexity to process plant matter. Additionally, the hypothesis that herbivory favors the evolution of larger body size was tested. Lastly, the association between diet and hindgut nematodes was explored. Herbivorous liolaemids were larger relative to omnivorous and insectivorous congeners and consequently had larger guts. In addition, small intestine length of herbivorous liolaemids was disproportionately longer than that of congeners. Significant interaction effects between diet and body size among organ dimensions indicate that increases in organ size occur to a greater extent in herbivores than other diet categories. For species with plant matter in their guts, there was a significant positive correlation between the percentage of plant matter consumed and small intestine length. Herbivorous liolaemids examined in this study lacked the gross morphological specializations (cecum and colonic valves) found in herbivores in the families Iguanidae and Agamidae. A significantly greater percentage of herbivorous species had nematodes in their gut. Of the species with nematodes, over 95% of herbivores had nematodes only in the hindgut. Prevalence of nematodes in the hindgut of herbivores was 2× that of omnivores and 4× that of insectivores.
Los dichosos nemátodos se encuentran en todas las especies de reptil que tienen válvulas cecales
Preguntas:
Todo este cambio, en sólo 34 años.... es acaso una acumulación por selección direccional de varios genes? Grano fino, o grano grueso?
Cuánto de este cambios fenotípico drástico se debe más bien al efecto inmediato de diferentes condiciones epigenéticas, como la mentada asociación con el nemátodo?
Etiquetas:
acoplamiento estructural,
adaptacion,
comportamiento,
ecologia,
parasitismo,
Phyloepigenetics,
simbiosis,
zoología
viernes, abril 04, 2008
Secuencialidad, ciclos de vida y la perspectiva sistémica de herencia
La observación crucial de la teoría de sistemas es que generalmente las propiedades de un sistema no son la suma aditiva de las propiedades de sus componentes. Al no ser una suma aditiva, no es conmutativa, es decir, la secuencia temporal en la que se encuentran una serie de componentes es determinante de resultados finales muy diferentes,
como lo revela la más simple receta de cocina. De esto entonces podemos deducir que las secuencia de eventos y de encuentros son cruciales para los sistemas biológicos, cosa que vemos manifiesta en su organizada estructura topológica que conduce y canaliza secuencias de eventos y de encuentros, tanto al interior del propio organismo, como con respecto a su medio. Es por esto que la perspectiva sistémica, al describir la deriva estructural en la ontogenia de un ser vivo, o bien la evolución de un linaje particular , connota este proceso como un proceso sistémico-histórico, una dinámica en la cual la secuencia de los eventos es fundamental (importante intuición histórica que Kaufman no logra desprender desde su rudimentario y fallido "reduccionismo de sistemas").
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En efecto, la conservación de la autopoiesis, y la conservación de un fenotipo ontogénico, implica simpre la conservación de una secuencia particular de eventos. En este punto es interesante contrastar este enfoque de secuencialidad en el tiempo con dos explicaciones clásicas al fenómeno de la herencia. Una, muy actual, sólo es capaz de concebir a la herencia mediante la noción del templado, es decir la famosa molécula autoreplicante del DNA. Los cambios se conservan porque quedan en el templado. A algunos parece incluso que les cuesta imaginarse cualquier otro mecansimo confiable de repetición. La otra explicación , vieja e inmortal, es relegar la repetición del fenotipo a la acción de alguna entelequia que como si de algún agente externo se tratara "guía" el desarrollo como en la ejecución de un plan (Las metáforas de programa y de teleonomía son en esencia lo mismo que la entelequia ya que no entregan mecanismos).
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Ambas visiones son erradas y adolecen del mismo problema: Pasan por alto la relevancia de la repetición cíclica de secuencias de eventos distribuidas en el tiempo. Queda olvidado el ciclo de vida, una secuencia de eventos clausurada, que genera condiciones conducentes a su propia repetición.
Un cambio introducido en algún punto del ciclo de vida puede no tener ninguna consecuencia inmediata. Los efectos pueden manifestarse mucho después, en el surgimiento de la interacción relevante. El ciclo de vida no se repite a sí mismo por medio de un mecanismo directo e inmediato de templado y copia, ni por el constante influjo de alguna guía enteléquica, sino que al tratarse de un proceso dinámico distribuido en el tiempo, una "causa" o cambio puede encontrarse distanciada en varios pasos de su efecto, y aún así participar de la repetición del ciclo como totalidad y la repetición de sí misma. Se trata de un mecanismo epigenético de herencia.
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-Dr Sanders
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Ambas visiones son erradas y adolecen del mismo problema: Pasan por alto la relevancia de la repetición cíclica de secuencias de eventos distribuidas en el tiempo. Queda olvidado el ciclo de vida, una secuencia de eventos clausurada, que genera condiciones conducentes a su propia repetición.
Un cambio introducido en algún punto del ciclo de vida puede no tener ninguna consecuencia inmediata. Los efectos pueden manifestarse mucho después, en el surgimiento de la interacción relevante. El ciclo de vida no se repite a sí mismo por medio de un mecanismo directo e inmediato de templado y copia, ni por el constante influjo de alguna guía enteléquica, sino que al tratarse de un proceso dinámico distribuido en el tiempo, una "causa" o cambio puede encontrarse distanciada en varios pasos de su efecto, y aún así participar de la repetición del ciclo como totalidad y la repetición de sí misma. Se trata de un mecanismo epigenético de herencia.
Es frecuente en animales comprobar la importancia para la conservación de un determinado ciclo de vida del lugar en donde se depositan los huevos y la interacción con el medio en ciertas "ventanas" temporales. En el caso del salmón, varias señales aprendidas en su infancia le llevan después a reconocer y regresar al río específico donde nació; por ejemplo, si se reubica drásticamente a un salmón, jamás va a optar por otro río, y muere sin reproducirse. Nótese sin embargo que para que ocurra la concatenación cíclica de una secuencia de eventos no se requiere en principio de la participación de un sistema nervioso. Acordemente, los ciclos son una forma de repetir eventos y fenotipos que es común a toda la biología, y no exclusiva a los organismos con sistema nervioso. Incluso a nivel de la fisiología celular, muy pocas moléculas son directamente autocatalíticas o templados de sí mismas, sino que son producidas como resultado de pertenecer a una red cíclicamente concatenada. La autopoiesis es claramente una propiedad distribuida en la célula, una relación recíproca entre dinámica molecular interna y membrana, que no puede ser descrita como una relación de templado y copia como en el caso de la secuencia de ADN.
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-Dr Sanders
Etiquetas:
ecologia,
epigenesis,
herencia,
herencia epigenética,
nicho ontogénico,
sistemas
martes, julio 24, 2007
Deriva ecológica
A ecologia vive hoje um debate muito semelhante ao debate vivido pela genética de populações nas décadas de 60 e 70, quando Kimura propôs que a evolução nucleotídica seguia um padrão neutro (as variações se fixavam aleatoriamente e não direcionada por seleção positiva). Atualmente a ecologia tem aplicado teorias neutras para explicar a estrutura das comunidades, em oposição às teorias que defendem que as comunidades são estruturadas pela competição por nichos.(Hu, He et al. 2006; Maurer and McGill 2004).
O principal nome do neutralismo ecológico (eu diria o “Motoo Kimura da ecologia”) é Stephen Hubbell e sua teoria unificada neutra da biodiversidade (TUNB) (Hubbell 2001). Hubbell propôe que a coexistência das espécies deve ser explicada por fatores historicamente contingentes, como por exemplo, quais espécies chegaram primeiro à comunidade, quantos espécies os recusrsos de uma determinada área sustentam, etc.
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A maior evidência em favor da TUNB são os dados experimentais. Simplesmente, assim como os modelos neutros da genética de populações, os modelos neutros em ecologia funcionam. Ou seja, assim como Kimura mostrou que os modelos null de variação se adequavam a taxa de substituição de peptídeos verificada em proteínas como o citocromo c e a hemoglobina, Hubbell verificou que modelos neutros se adequavam à variação observada, principalmente, em sua ampla pesquisa com biodiversidade de árvores tropicais.
Os modelos formais da TUNB se caracterizam por considerarem irrelevantes as diferenças entre indivíduos de diferentes epécies que ocupam um mesmo nicho (fitness invariance). Hubbell alega que a exclusão competitiva levaria tanto tempo que fenômenos como especiação, dispersão e deriva ecológica a tornaria irrelevante. "Communities are open, nonequilibrium assemblages of species largely thrown together by chance, history, and random dispersal. Species come and go, their presence or absence is dictated by random dispersal and stochastic local extinction" (Hubbell, 2001, p. 8-9).
Por outro lado, Hubbell define as teoria de competição por nicho (TCN) assim: This view holds that communities are groups of interacting species whose presence or absence and even their relative abundance can be deduced from "assembly rules" that are based on the ecological niches or functional roles of each species (e.g., MacArthur 1970, Levin 1970, Diamond 1975, Weiher and Keddy 1999). According to this view, species coexist in interactive equilibrium with the other species in the community. The stability of the community and its resistance to perturbation derive from the adaptive equilibrium of member species, each of which has evolved to be the best competitor in its own ecological niche (Hubbell, 2001).
O principal nome do neutralismo ecológico (eu diria o “Motoo Kimura da ecologia”) é Stephen Hubbell e sua teoria unificada neutra da biodiversidade (TUNB) (Hubbell 2001). Hubbell propôe que a coexistência das espécies deve ser explicada por fatores historicamente contingentes, como por exemplo, quais espécies chegaram primeiro à comunidade, quantos espécies os recusrsos de uma determinada área sustentam, etc.

A maior evidência em favor da TUNB são os dados experimentais. Simplesmente, assim como os modelos neutros da genética de populações, os modelos neutros em ecologia funcionam. Ou seja, assim como Kimura mostrou que os modelos null de variação se adequavam a taxa de substituição de peptídeos verificada em proteínas como o citocromo c e a hemoglobina, Hubbell verificou que modelos neutros se adequavam à variação observada, principalmente, em sua ampla pesquisa com biodiversidade de árvores tropicais.
Os modelos formais da TUNB se caracterizam por considerarem irrelevantes as diferenças entre indivíduos de diferentes epécies que ocupam um mesmo nicho (fitness invariance). Hubbell alega que a exclusão competitiva levaria tanto tempo que fenômenos como especiação, dispersão e deriva ecológica a tornaria irrelevante. "Communities are open, nonequilibrium assemblages of species largely thrown together by chance, history, and random dispersal. Species come and go, their presence or absence is dictated by random dispersal and stochastic local extinction" (Hubbell, 2001, p. 8-9).
Por outro lado, Hubbell define as teoria de competição por nicho (TCN) assim: This view holds that communities are groups of interacting species whose presence or absence and even their relative abundance can be deduced from "assembly rules" that are based on the ecological niches or functional roles of each species (e.g., MacArthur 1970, Levin 1970, Diamond 1975, Weiher and Keddy 1999). According to this view, species coexist in interactive equilibrium with the other species in the community. The stability of the community and its resistance to perturbation derive from the adaptive equilibrium of member species, each of which has evolved to be the best competitor in its own ecological niche (Hubbell, 2001).
A TCN tem sido retrabalhada para responder à algumas críticas modernas. O principal ponto é que a coexistência de espécie em um mesmo nicho é justificada pela existência de trades-offs. Se duas espécies de um mesmo nicho (no sentido amplo de nicho, talvez melhor definido como guilda) coexistem, elas devem manter trades-off. Por exemplo, uma espécie deve ser melhor em se esconder e a outra em fugir, de maneira que exista um balanço entre esta propriedades (Chase and Leibold 2003).
Os dois esqueminhas abaixo representam as duas teorias. A TCN prevêm que as comunidades possuem uma estrutura estável que foi historicamnete moldada por competição. Se um evento disponibiliza recursos, o equilíbrio é restabelecido. Já a TUNB não espera que a estrutura seja estável, mas dinâmica. Cada vez que recursos são disponibilizados, ocorre uma "deriva ecológica" (expressão de Hubbell) e uma nova estrutura é estabelecida.
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Creio que para a maioria dos leitores deste blog não é surpreendente que modelos ecológicos que ignoram a competição por nichos funcionem. Afinal, se a comunidade possui uma estruutra dinâmica e histórica, nada mais razoável que ela derive. No entanto, os modelos neutros tem sofrido certa resistência, principalmente por não se encaixarem em muito dos pressupostos neodarwinistas.
Os dois esqueminhas abaixo representam as duas teorias. A TCN prevêm que as comunidades possuem uma estrutura estável que foi historicamnete moldada por competição. Se um evento disponibiliza recursos, o equilíbrio é restabelecido. Já a TUNB não espera que a estrutura seja estável, mas dinâmica. Cada vez que recursos são disponibilizados, ocorre uma "deriva ecológica" (expressão de Hubbell) e uma nova estrutura é estabelecida.
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Creio que para a maioria dos leitores deste blog não é surpreendente que modelos ecológicos que ignoram a competição por nichos funcionem. Afinal, se a comunidade possui uma estruutra dinâmica e histórica, nada mais razoável que ela derive. No entanto, os modelos neutros tem sofrido certa resistência, principalmente por não se encaixarem em muito dos pressupostos neodarwinistas.
Creio ainda que uma deriva ecológica se tornará cada vez mais plausível a medida os nichos passarem a ser concebidos como nichos-ontogênicos e não como nichos fenotípicos. Levar a plasticidade fenotípica a sério, ao invés de considerá-la um ruído, minaria muito dos pressupostos da TCN.
Chico
Chase, J. M. and M. A. Leibold (2003). Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches, University of Chicago Press.
Hu, X. S., F. He, et al. (2006). "Neutral theory in macroecology and population genetics." Oikos 113(3): 548-556.
Hubbell, S. P. (2001). "The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography." Á Princeton: 375.
Maurer, B. A. and B. J. McGill (2004). "Neutral and non-neutral macroecology." Basic and Applied Ecology 5(5): 413-422.
Chase, J. M. and M. A. Leibold (2003). Ecological Niches: Linking Classical and Contemporary Approaches, University of Chicago Press.
Hu, X. S., F. He, et al. (2006). "Neutral theory in macroecology and population genetics." Oikos 113(3): 548-556.
Hubbell, S. P. (2001). "The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography." Á Princeton: 375.
Maurer, B. A. and B. J. McGill (2004). "Neutral and non-neutral macroecology." Basic and Applied Ecology 5(5): 413-422.
Etiquetas:
deriva ecológica,
ecologia,
exclusão competitiva,
Hubbell,
nicho
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